A despeito do significado e da importância da queda do muro de Berlim, continuam fortes no mundo inteiro grupos de interesse de natureza política e econômica contrários à expansão de liberdades políticas e econômicas. A The Economist explora o tema.
domingo, 8 de novembro de 2009
Muro de Berlim: Por Que Liberdades Econômicas e Políticas Não Estão Garantidas
A despeito do significado e da importância da queda do muro de Berlim, continuam fortes no mundo inteiro grupos de interesse de natureza política e econômica contrários à expansão de liberdades políticas e econômicas. A The Economist explora o tema.
quarta-feira, 4 de novembro de 2009
Falhas de Governo x Falhas de Mercado
A Queda do Império Romano
"The cornerstone of Diocletian's economic policy was to turn the existing ad hoc policy of requisitions to obtain resources for the state into a regular system. Since money was worthless, the new system was based on collecting taxes in the form of actual goods and services, but regularized into a budget so that the state knew exactly what it needed and taxpayers knew exactly how much they had to pay."
"Careful calculations were made of precisely how much grain, cloth, oil, weapons or other goods were necessary to sustain a single Roman soldier. Thus, working backwards from the state's military requirements, a calculation was made for the total amount of goods and services the state would need in a given year. On the other side of the coin, it was also necessary to calculate what the taxpayers were able to provide in terms of the necessary goods and services. This required a massive census, not only of people but of resources, especially cultivated land. Land was graded according to its productivity. As Lactantius (1984: 37) put it, "Fields were measured out clod by clod, vines and trees were counted, every kind of animal was registered, and note taken of every member of the population."
Terá sido esta a fonte de inspiração do governo brasileiro para os seus "indices de produtividade" no campo? De qualquer forma, Roma se tornou uma sociedade rent-seeking, onde os recipientes eram em maior número em relação aos contribuintes:"...land continued to be abandoned and trade, for the most part, ceased (Rostovtzeff 1926). Industry moved to the provinces, basically leaving Rome as an economic empty shell; still in receipt of taxes, grain and other goods produced in the provinces, but producing nothing itself. The mob of Rome and the palace favorites produced nothing, yet continually demanded more, leading to an intolerable tax burden on the productive classes. [13]
In the fifty years after Diocletian the Roman tax burden roughly doubled, making it impossible for small farmers to live on their production (Bernardi 1970: 55). [14] This is what led to the final breakdown of the economy (Jones 1959). As Lactantius (1984: 13) put it:
In the end, there was no money left to pay the army, build forts or ships, or protect the frontier. The barbarian invasions, which were the final blow to the Roman state in the fifth century, were simply the culmination of three centuries of deterioration in the fiscal capacity of the state to defend itself. Indeed, many Romans welcomed the barbarians as saviors from the onerous tax burden. [15]The number of recipients began to exceed the number of contributors by so much that, with farmers' resources exhausted by the enormous size of the requisitions, fields became deserted and cultivated land was turned into forest.
Although the fall of Rome appears as a cataclysmic event in history, for the bulk of Roman citizens it had little impact on their way of life. As Henri Pirenne (1939: 33-62) has pointed out, once the invaders effectively had displaced the Roman government they settled into governing themselves. At this point, they no longer had any incentive to pillage, but rather sought to provide peace and stability in the areas they controlled. After all, the wealthier their subjects the greater their taxpaying capacity.
In conclusion, the fall of Rome was fundamentally due to economic deterioration resulting from excessive taxation, inflation, and over-regulation. Higher and higher taxes failed to raise additional revenues because wealthier taxpayers could evade such taxes while the middle class--and its taxpaying capacity--were exterminated. Although the final demise of the Roman Empire in the West (its Eastern half continued on as the Byzantine Empire) was an event of great historical importance, for most Romans it was a relief."
Leitura obrigatória para quem acha que mais governo nunca é demais.Vinte Anos da Queda do Muro de Berlim
"Mr. Gorbachov, tear down this wall!"
Dia 09/11/2009, celebraremos os vinte anos da queda do muro de Berlim, uma aberração construída para proteger o socialismo e sua visão idílica no ocidente da sua mais terrível verdade: um sistema de escravidão em massa, que depende de uma brutal concentração de poder. Como disse Paul Johnson, "um sistema que depende de pilhas de cadáveres todo ano para continuar funcionando". A falência do socialismo não é apenas econômica e política, é sobretudo de natureza moral. Um evento a não ser jamais esquecido.
Após estes 20 anos, ainda cabe a pergunta: até que ponto devemos sacrificar nossa liberdade em prol de delírios utópicos? A resposta é óbvia, mas não vi forma mais elegante do que esta, neste artigo de Swaminathan S. Anklesaria Aiyar, do Cato Institute:
"Communists and socialists everywhere, including in India, were dismayed. They could not understand why East Germans blessed with income equality, free social welfare and full employment should flee to the highly unequal West, which bristled with unemployment and social perils. An answer came in a letter to a newspaper editor.
"My daughter's hamster (a pet white mouse) has food, water, shelter and even medical care, and a cage full of fun curly tubes. The hamster responds by constantly trying to chew his way to freedom. I think we all understand what freedom is, and it is not a gilded cage.""
quinta-feira, 8 de outubro de 2009
O Elo Perdido: Evolução, Crescimento do Cérebro e a Expansão de Mercados

Segundo este artigo do LA Times, a evolução humana vem se acelerando rapidamente desde o advento da agricultura:
"The researchers looked for long stretches of DNA that were identical in many people, suggesting that a gene was widely adopted and that it spread relatively recently, before random mutations among individuals had a chance to occur.
They found that the more the population grew, the faster human genes evolved. That's because more people created more opportunities for a beneficial mutation to arise, Hawks said.
In the last 5,000 to 10,000 years, as agriculture was able to support increasingly large societies, the rate of evolutionary change rose to more than 100 times historical levels, the study concluded.
Among the fastest-evolving genes were those related to brain development, but the researchers aren't sure what made them so desirable, Hawks said."
Desta forma, crescimento populacional não é apenas bom para crescimento econômico, pois mais pessoas criam mais oportunidades para trocas benéficas ocorrerem, mas como também ajuda a desenvolver o cérebro. Assim sendo, o aumento do tamanho do cérebro não seria uma consequência não-intencional da expansão de mercados e crescimento da renda e da população ao longo da história? É possível testar esta hipótese da relação da expansão de mercados e aceleração de mudanças genéticas?
P.S. Agradeço a Gilson Geraldino por chamar a atenção a este artigo.
A Escola Austríaca de Economia
Para quem não conhece nem terá a oportunidade de estudá-la nos cursos de graduação em economia no Brasil, esta série de vídeos apresenta uma excelente introdução a esta escola de pensamento econômico, considerada herética pelos liberticidas na academia. O vídeo acima é apenas o primeiro da série.
quinta-feira, 1 de outubro de 2009
"Importância Sistêmica" e Risco Moral
"Can elephants fly? The Obama plan is open-ended. No one has offered an operational definition of systemically important. Every member of Congress would be obligated to act as if any large failure in his or her district was "systemic". Much capital would go to rescue failing enterprises instead of supporting new, efficient enterprises. Once again:
Capitalism without failure is like religion without sin. It doesn't work because incentives are weak or non-existent."
segunda-feira, 28 de setembro de 2009
A Volta da Bolha Assassina

A bolha assassina, na forma da doutrina do "banco grande demais para quebrar"(TBTF - too big to fail), reduz os impactos da política monetária sobre o canal de crédito e sobre a atividade econômica, impedindo uma rápida estabilização da economia. Richard Fisher e Harvey Rosenblum, do Fed de Dallas explicam. Se a existência da bolha assassina já é danosa para a economia, seu crescimento, como o previsto pelo novo plano do Tesouro americano de designar mesmo instituições financeiras não bancárias como "sistemicamente importantes", é aterrorizante, como explica Paul Volcker, ex-presidente do Fed.
P.S. Scott Sumner discorda da análise de Fisher e Rosenblum. Nada como uma voz dissonante que enriquece o debate.
domingo, 27 de setembro de 2009
Governo Cubano Faz Importante Descoberta
sexta-feira, 25 de setembro de 2009
Por Que (Quase) Todos os Políticos São Keynesianos?
"It should not be surprising however that both liberals and conservatives, especially when given political power, love Keynes. Both ideologies nurture deep beliefs in the infallibility of government intervention and the fallibility of markets, beliefs however that are at the core of the failures of Keynesianism. That Keynes didn't know much about modern public choice is understandable. That contemporary conservatives and liberals however willingly choose to ignore it is unacceptable, something that can only be explained by modern public choice science itself: these beliefs are simply the result of the self-serving search for power and control in politics (although it could be argued that there are also deeply rooted religious factors behind this fatal attraction for Keynesian ideas).
Besides all that, Keynesianism has never been really discarded when it comes to policy making, despite all the advances in macroeconomics after Keynes. It makes absolutely no sense therefore to say that we should return to Keynesian economic policies, as if we have ever really abandoned them. Politics and Keynesianism is a marriage made in hell."
The Economist Discute os Multiplicadores
quinta-feira, 24 de setembro de 2009
Falhas de Governo
Economics One
"In my view, the financial crisis does not provide any evidence of a failure of modern economics. Rather the crisis vindicates the theory. Why do I say this? Because the research I have done shows that the crisis was caused by a deviation of policy from the type of policy recommended by modern economics. It was an interventionist deviation from the type of systematic policy that was responsible for the remarkably good economic performance in the two decades before the crisis. Economists call this earlier period the Long Boom or the Great Moderation because of the remarkably long expansions and short shallow recessions. In other words, we have convincing evidence that interventionist government policies have done harm. The crisis did not occur because economic theory went wrong. It occurred because policy went wrong, because policy makers stopped paying attention to the economics."
Impactos Macroeconômicos de Impostos e Compras do Governo
"For U.S. annual data that include WWII, the estimated multiplier for defense spending is 0.6-0.7 at the median unemployment rate. There is some evidence that this multiplier rises with the extent of economic slack and reaches 1.0 when the unemployment rate is around 12%. Multipliers for non-defense purchases cannot be reliably estimated because of the lack of good instruments. For samples that begin in 1950, increases in average marginal income-tax rates (measured by a newly constructed time series) have a significantly negative effect on real GDP. Increases in taxes seem to reduce real GDP with mainly a one-year lag due to income effects and mostly a two-year lag due to substitution (tax-rate) effects. Since the defense-spending multiplier is typically less than one, greater spending tends to crowd out other components of GDP. The largest effects are on private investment, but non-defense purchases and net exports tend also to fall. The response of private consumer expenditure differs insignificantly from zero. "
segunda-feira, 21 de setembro de 2009
Quão Grandes são os Multiplicadores de Dispêndio?

As decisões de consumo das famílias são melhor descritas pelo modelo de renda permanente do Milton Friedman e pelo modelo de ciclo de vida de Franco Modigliani ou pela teoria da função consumo keynesiana? Qual é o impacto, até agora, do pacote fiscal de estímulo econômico do governo Obama? John Cogan, John Taylor e Volker Wieland oferecem evidências empíricas de que a macroeconomia moderna (neoclássica, de expectativas racionais) é a que melhor explica os dados.
"Incoming data will reveal more in coming months, but the data available so far tell us that the government transfers and rebates have not stimulated consumption at all, and that the resilience of the private sector following the fall 2008 panic--not the fiscal stimulus program--deserves the lion's share of the credit for the impressive growth improvement from the first to the second quarter. As the economic recovery takes hold, it is important to continue assessing the role played by the stimulus package and other factors. These assessments can be a valuable guide to future policy makers in designing effective policy responses to economic downturns."
Keynes: O Retorno do Mestre
"Keynesian theory is based in part on the premise that wages and prices do not adjust to levels that ensure full employment. But if recessions and depressions are as costly as they seem to be, why don't firms have sufficient incentive to adjust wages and prices quickly, to restore equilibrium? This is a classic question of macroeconomics that, despite much hard work, is yet to be fully resolved.
Which brings us to a third group of macroeconomists: those who fall into neither the pro- nor the anti-Keynes camp. I count myself among the ambivalent. We credit both sides with making legitimate points, yet we watch with incredulity as the combatants take their enthusiasm or detestation too far. Keynes was a creative thinker and keen observer of economic events, but he left us with more hard questions than compelling answers."
quarta-feira, 16 de setembro de 2009
O Colapso do Lehman Brothers
terça-feira, 15 de setembro de 2009
O Que Há de Errado Com a Macroeconomia?
segunda-feira, 14 de setembro de 2009
Desafios Para o Mundo Pós-Crise
Enquanto Isto, Faltam Investimentos
Reestatização Em Curso
quarta-feira, 9 de setembro de 2009
Como Fazer o Bem Com o Dinheiro dos Outros
Como é Bom Gastar o Dinheiro dos Outros .....
"E nem se pode dizer que os acordos e compromissos até aqui assumidos permitirão ao Brasil dar um salto tecnológico nas áreas de produção de sistemas avançados de armas, que coloquem o País como líder incontestável da região. O compromisso de compra dos Rafale, por exemplo, foi feito de afogadilho. "Os nossos companheiros trabalharam até quase as 2 horas. Eu nem sequer tive tempo de fazer reunião com o ministro da Defesa para discutir com profundidade", confessou o presidente Lula. O comandante da Aeronáutica, ao que parece, ficou sabendo de tudo no final do expediente, pois os militares foram excluídos do processo de decisão. De fato, essa decisão nem mesmo constava do texto da declaração conjunta assinada pelos dois presidentes. Foi acrescentada, em folha avulsa, depois que o presidente Sarkozy manifestou a intenção - apenas isso - de comprar dez aviões cargueiros de um modelo que a Embraer ainda está projetando. Vivo fosse, o general De Gaulle diria que este ainda não é um país sério."

